Hey fellow adventurers! It’s history time again! Time to brush up on world history, and maybe even learn something new!
Humans have occupied Mexico for at least 20,000 years. They were split into two groups of people, hunter-gatherer nomads who lived in the north and farming communities in the central and south. Around 8000 BCE, the first human experiments cultivating squash in the new world.
Mexico’s first known society is the Olmecs who flourished from 1200-900 BCE. They built their civilization on the gulf coast where they mostly focused on farming along the rivers. They were known for their effective cultivation of crops such as corn (maize), beans, chili peppers and cotton; the emergence of pottery, fine art and graphic symbols used to record Olmec history, society and culture; and the establishment of larger cities such as San Lorenzo and La Venta. The reason for their decline is still debated to this day. Some believe that an overly dense population led to civil strife while others think they over farmed their soil, which was their main source of food and the basis of their economy. Their downfall cleared the way for other civilizations such as the Maya, Zapotec, Totonac, and Teotihuacán (which all share Olmec heritage).
The Maya are known for their advanced knowledge of astronomy and mathematics, being the only known pre-Columbian American civilization to develop a full-fledged writing system and for their inventions. One of their more impressive systems was developing channels to redirect and store enough rain water to support their citizens. For unknown reasons, by the time the Spanish arrived, most of the Maya cities had been abandoned. It’s believed that disease, drought and ecological damage is probably what led to the downfall of the Maya.
In 600 CE, the Toltecs began to establish their empire. The rise of the Toltecs, who used their powerful armies to subjugate neighboring societies, is said to have marked the beginning of militarism in Mesoamerican society. By 900 CE, the dominant warlike Toltecs had headquartered themselves in their capital of Tula. Over the next 300 years internal conflict, combined with the influx of the north, weakened the Toltec civilization until they were finally vanquished by the Chichimecha tribe of Mexica (more commonly known as the Aztecs).
The Aztecs, the last of the pre-Colombian civilizations, migrated to the Valley of Anahuac in 1325. Following the prophecy of one of their gods, Huitzilopochtli, they founded a settlement, Tenochtitlán, on the marshy land near Lake Texcoco. By the 15th century, the Aztecs formed a strong alliance with the Toltecs and the Maya which helped them conquer smaller cultures to the east and west until the Aztec empire spanned from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf Coast. The Aztecs developed a social, political, religious and commercial organization, create bustling economy driven markets (early forms of currency included cacao beans and lengths of woven cloth), and was also known for their art.
The first mainland explorations by the Spanish came through modern day Colombia in 1492. However, the Aztecs were not loved by all they ruled, and were eventually brought down by traders within their own empire, with the help of disease and plague.
Driven by the desire to find a route to Asia, Francisco Hernández de Córdoba becomes the first European to set foot on Mexican territory in 1517. Soon after Córdoba lands, he’s almost immediately defeated by the locals and returns to to Cuba to prompt the Spanish governor there, Diego Velásquez, to send a larger force back to Mexico, under the command of Hernán Cortés. In 1519, Cortés arrives and in 1521, Cortés razes the Aztec capital and builds Mexico City on its ruins. The fall of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan in 1521 was a decisive event, but Spaniards conquered other regions of Mexico, such as Yucatán, extended long after Spaniards consolidated control of central Mexico.
Administration of the newly conquered territory was based on racial separation. Everyone was categorized into four main classes: Spaniards, creoles, mestizos and natives. The Spaniards were sent from the mainland to administer the colony and were the only class that was allowed high-level jobs in the government. The creoles were people of Spanish origin who were born in Mexico. The mestizos were people who had some Spanish and some native ancestors. The poorest and most marginalized groups were the natives. Although the creoles, mestizos, and natives often disagreed, they all resented the small minority of Spaniards who had all the political power.
By the early 1800’s, inspired by the United States, many native-born Mexicans thought that Mexico should become its own independent region. Napoleon’s occupation of Spain in 1808 compromised the country’s political and economic structure, which in turn weakened Spain’s grip on Mexico, and gave Mexicans the opportunity they desired. The rebellion began with priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla who issued “The Cry of Dolores” (by ringing on the bell of his church) on September 16, 1810. That day is now celebrated as Independence Day in Mexico. They marched on the capital with a very large but poorly organized army which were defeated by the Spanish, and Hidalgo was executed. However, an insurgency continued afterwards. The rebels formulated a revolutionary proclamation demanding an independent constitutional monarchy, a religious monopoly for the Catholic Church, and equality for Spaniards and creoles. On September 27, 1821, the Spaniards signed the Treaty of Cordoba which marked the beginning of Mexican independence.
A couple years after gaining independence, Agustín de Iturbide became a dictator and proclaimed himself emperor of Mexico but was quickly assassinated. General Antonio López de Santa Anna, Iturbide’s former aide, declares Mexico a Mexican republic, and becomes Mexico’s first elected president a couple years after leading the successful resistance against Spain’s attempt to recapture Mexico.
By 1835, Mexico granted United States citizens land in the then northern Mexican territory, now known as Texas, on the condition that the settlers convert to Catholicism, become Mexican citizens and didn’t partake in slavery. Most of the settlers ignored these conditions which prompted a war between Texas and Mexico. The war lasted less than a year and resulted in the creation of the Republic of Texas in 1836. In 1845, the U.S. Congress ratified Texas’s petition for statehood.
US President James Polk offered to purchase the territories north of the Rio Grande River but Mexico refused. With tension still high between Mexico and the US, the US declared war on Mexico. Despite a series of U.S. victories, Mexico refuses to admit defeat, and in the spring of 1847, the US sends forces under General Winfield Scott to capture Mexico City. On February 2, 1848 Manuel Hidalgo signs the Treaty of Guadalupe, which forced Mexico to sell the territories of California and New Mexico and forgave a large portion of Mexican debt. Mexico’s defeat in the war against the United States becomes a catalyst for reform in Mexico. Reformers based in the cities, reached out to educate the largely rural population. Their strategy was to sharply limit the traditional privileges and land holdings of the Catholic Church and thus revitalize the country. The reforms began with the final overthrow of Santa Anna in 1855.
Porfiriato Diaz, a general and politician led a revolt in 1876. Diaz will essentially rule as a dictator until 1911 and although he ushered in the industrial age and improved the country’s infrastructure, he would bestow political favors to the wealthy, ignore the poor, and ruled ruthlessly by force. He rebuilt the country by encouraging foreign investments in the country however this mostly helps the wealthy upper class and the growing inequality breeds growing discontent which lead to revolution.
Francisco Madero unsuccessfully runs against Díaz in the presidential elections. After he fails to become president, he publishes a book calling for free and democratic elections and an end to the Díaz regime, and even though 90% of the Mexican population at this time is illiterate, the message spreads which prompts an increase in a demand for change. Eventually Madero himself because the leader of a revolution when he issues the plan of San Luis Potosi, which promised democracy, federalism, and worker’s rights. Díaz is forced to resign and Madero is elected the next president but conflict and violence continue for the better part of the next decade.
During this time Mexico deals with political instability and a brutal fight for the presidency. Despite Germany’s efforts to enlist Mexico in World War 1, Mexico remains neutral. More political unrest follows. In 1940, President Manual Ávila Camacho, forges a friendlier relationship with the US, which leads Mexico to declare war on the Axis powers after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor. In the post-World War 2 years, Mexico undergoes great industrial and economic growth, though the gap between the richest and poorest segments of the population keeps growing. The ruling government party, founded in 1929, is renamed the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), and will continue its dominance for the next 50 years.
In 1968, Mexico City is chosen to host the Olympic Games, and for the year following student protesters stage a number of demonstrations in an attempt to draw international attention to what they see as a lack of social justice and democracy in Mexico under the PRI government and its current president, Gustavo Díaz Ordaz. The Mexican government brutally stops the protests, killing at least 100 people, and the games go on as planned.
In 1976, huge oil reserves are found at the southernmost end of the Gulf of Mexico so Jose López Portillo borrows huge sums of foreign money at high interest rates, only to discover that the oil is generally of low grade which leaves Mexico largely indebted. By the mid-1980s, Mexico is in financial crisis which is made substitutionally worse by the earthquake in 1985 in Mexico City kills nearly 10,000 people and causes heavy damage. The displaced residents, dissatisfied with the government’s response to their situation, form grassroots organizations that will blossom into a full-fledged human rights and civic action movement during the late 1980s and 1990s.
In 1992, President Carlos Salinas joins George H.W. Bush of the U.S. and Prime Minister Brian Mulroney of Canada in signing the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which calls for a phasing out of the longstanding trade barriers between the three nations. Salinas does this despite widespread opposition which pushes more people to support the leftist Partido Revolucionario Democrático (PRD) and in 1995 the former president is forced into exile.
In 1994, Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon, is elected president and immediately faces a banking crisis when the value of the Mexican peso plunges on international markets. The United States loans Mexico $20 billion, which, along with a plan of economic austerity, helps stabilize its currency. Vicente Fox, of the opposition Partido de Acción Nacional (PAN) wins election to the Mexican presidency, ending more than 70 years of PRI rule. At first, Fox focuses on improving trade relations with the United States, calming civil unrest and reducing corruption, crime and drug trafficking. Fox also strives to improve the status of millions of illegal Mexican immigrants living in the United States, but his efforts stall after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Fox also faces large-scale protests by farmers frustrated with the inequalities of the NAFTA system.
In 2006, Felipe Calderón apparently wins by less than one percentage point over Andrés Manual López Obrador which upsets Obrador’s supporters. After Calderón gets inaugurated in December, over 100,000 people appear to protest in Mexico City. In his first months in office, Calderón moves away from the pro-business, free-trade promises of his campaign, expressing his desire to address some of the issues of poverty and social injustice championed by Obrador.
Within the past decade, Mexico has been struggling a lot with drug cartels and drug trafficking. In 2006, a new federal police force is created to tackle drugs cartels. In 2008, drug-related killings begin to soar and hundreds of thousands march through Mexico to protest the drug-related violence. In 2010, President Calderon calls on United States to share responsibility in battle against drug trafficking, after the murder of three people connected to US consulate in border city of Ciudad Juarez.
In 2012, Enrique Pena Nieto, the current president, is elected president. In 2016, Mexico says it will not pay for a wall to be built along the Mexican-US border in its first direct response to US presidential candidate Donald Trump’s electoral pledge. Nieto also proposed constitutional reform to legalize same-sex marriage across the country.
Additional Reading:
http://www.history.com/topics/mexico/history-of-mexico
Thank you so much for reading my blog! Sorry I uploaded it late. I haven’t been feeling well recently but I promise that even I’m late, I will still post three blog posts a week. I still look forward to discovering new things with my readers every week! Until our next adventure!
